Select any element cell above to inspect its Pauling electronegativity, valence electrons, and bonding properties.
Electronegativity Difference (ΔEN) & Bond Character
0.0 to 0.4Nonpolar Covalent (equal electron sharing)
0.5 to 1.7Polar Covalent (unequal sharing, bond dipole)
Greater than 1.7Ionic (complete electron transfer, full charges)
Low EN metal + metalMetallic bonding (delocalized electron sea)
VSEPR Molecular Geometries & Ideal Bond Angles
2 domains (2 bonds, 0 lone pairs)Linear (180°) e.g. CO₂, CS₂, BeCl₂
3 domains (3 bonds, 0 lone pairs)Trigonal planar (120°) e.g. BF₃, SO₃
3 domains (2 bonds, 1 lone pair)Bent (~118°) e.g. SO₂, O₃
4 domains (4 bonds, 0 lone pairs)Tetrahedral (109.5°) e.g. CH₄, CCl₄
4 domains (3 bonds, 1 lone pair)Trigonal pyramidal (~107°) e.g. NH₃, PCl₃
4 domains (2 bonds, 2 lone pairs)Bent (~104.5°) e.g. H₂O, SCl₂, H₂S
Molecular Polarity Rules
Nonpolar MoleculesSymmetric geometry with identical outer atoms (dipoles cancel). Examples: CO₂, CCl₄, BF₃, CH₄.
Polar MoleculesAsymmetric geometry (lone pair on central atom) or different outer atoms (dipoles do not cancel). Examples: H₂O, NH₃, CH₃Cl.
Intermolecular Forces (IMFs) Hierarchy
London Dispersion Forces (LDFs)Present in all molecules. Strength increases with electron count (polarizability).
Dipole-Dipole AttractionsOccur between permanent polar dipoles. Stronger than LDFs for similar-sized molecules.
Hydrogen BondingExceptionally strong dipole attraction when H is directly bonded to N, O, or F.
Bulk Property EffectsStronger IMFs = Higher boiling/melting points, higher surface tension, lower vapor pressure.